wo±e.r 


CO 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORN//- 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 

Y.B.  Separate  634. 


CLEAN  WATER  AND   HOW  TO   GET 
IT  ON  THE  FARM. 


EGBERT  W.  TRULLINGER, 

Specialist  in  Rural  Engineering,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


[FROM  YEARBOOK  OF  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE  FOR  1914.] 


9444<J° — 15 1  .  WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  :  1915 


-a  7 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

The  difference  between  clean  water  and  merely  clear  water 139 

Stream  water  unsafe  to  use 140 

The  farm  well 140 

How  to  keep  the  well  water  clean 142 

How  springs  are  polluted  and  how  to  keep  them  clean 144 

How  to  get  running  water  in  the  house 147 

Conclusion . .                                   155 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE  VII.     Some  types  of  well  surroundings 146 

VIII.     Some  types  of  well  and  spring  surroundings 146 

IX.     Some  types  of  well  and  spring  surroundings 146 

TEXT   FIGURES. 

FIG.  3.     A  common  type  of  cistern  and  filter 147 

4.  Pneumatic  tank  supply  system  with  tank  in  basement 

supplied  by  hand  force  pump 152 

5.  Hydraulic  ram  pumping  into  a  pneumatic  tank  supply 

system 153 

6.  Two  methods  of  securing  the  necessary  fall  in  drive  pipe.       154 

in 


CLEAN  WATER  AND  HOW  TO  GET  IT  ON  THE  FARM. 

By  ROBERT  W.  TRULLINGER, 
Specialist  in  Rural  Engineering,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

THE  improvement  of  farm  water  supplies,  a  matter 
long  neglected  by  American  farmers,  is  now  in  some 
degree  attracting  the  consideration  it  merits.  It  is  becom- 
ing widely  recognized  that  in  many  cases  the  farm  water 
supplies  are  perhaps  dangerously  polluted.  In  addition, 
those  who  are  so  unfortunately  situated  as  to  be  required 
to  carry  water  from  the  well  to  the  house  are  becoming 
extremely  weary  of  this  drudgery.  Every  farm  must  have 
a  water  supply,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  plentiful  supply 
of  clean  water,  made  available  where  most  used  by  the  mere 
turning  of  a  faucet,  or  at  the  worst  by  pumping  without 
carrying,  is  one  of  the  main  factors  in  making  modern  farm 
home  life  desirable. 

Securing  clean  water  in  the  farm  house  is  a  somewhat 
different  problem  from  that  of  providing  a  city  or  town 
supply.  In  the  latter  case  the  purity  and  availability  of 
the  water  supply  is  taken  care  of  by  engineering  and  public- 
health  officials;  in  the  former  a  personal  understanding  of 
the  dangers  which  lie  in  a  polluted  water  supply  is  neces- 
sary, and  a  great  deal  of  resourcefulness  is  often  required 
to  secure  an  unpolluted  supply  and  to  prevent  the  drudgery 
of  carrying  water. 

THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  CLEAN  WATER  AND  MERELY 
CLEAR  WATER. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  consideration  in  connection 
with  the  farm  water  supply  is  to  get  clean  water.  In  the 
past  clean  water  has  usually  meant  clear  water.  But  it 
is  now  known  that  water  to  be  clean  must  not  only  be  clear, 
but  it  must  be  pure.  Water  may  be  vilely  polluted  and 
at  the  same  time  be  beautifully  clear  and  sparkling.  It 
may  be  clear  and  yet  contain  the  invisible  and  deadly 
germs  of  typhoid  fever  or  other  intestinal  disorders.  It 

139 


140  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

may  also  contain  considerable  poisonous  matter  in  solu- 
tion. A  polluted  water  supply  is  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  bad  sanitary  conditions  which  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance to  remedy. 

The  main  sources  of  water  for  farm  use  are  streams, 
springs,  cisterns,  and  wells.  Perhaps  the  majority  of  sup- 
plies are  derived  from  wells  and  cisterns,  although  springs 
are  often  used.  In  rarer  instances,  where  other  supplies 
are  difficult  to  obtain,  stream  water  is  used. 

STREAM  WATER  UNSAFE  TO  USE. 

With  the  growth  of  population  an'd  development  of 
industries  there  is  progressive  pollution  of  streams,  so  that 
in  the  more  thickly  settled  regions  streams  not  already 
contaminated  or  subject  to  pollution  are  very  rare.  Surface- 
water  supplies  from  small  streams  should,  therefore,  never 
be  used  for  household  purposes  unless  no  other  supply  is 
available.  In  the  event  that  it  must  be  used  such  water 
should  be  clear  and  should  be  thoroughly  boiled.  Other 
processes  of  purification,  such  as  filtering,  treating  with 
chemicals,  or  distilling,  are  also  sometimes  used,  but  are 
generally  impracticable  from  the  farm  standpoint.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  surface  water  of  any  kind  should  be 
looked  upon  with  considerable  suspicion. 

THE  FARM  WELL. 

The  well  is  the  most  commonly  used  source  of  farm 
water  supply.  It  may  be  a  shallow  dug  or  driven  well  or 
a  deep  dug  or  bored  well.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
the  majority  of  shallow  dug  wells  on  farms  where  contamina- 
tion is  present  are  contaminated. .  This  has  been  abundantly 
proved  by  investigations  made  by  this  department  and 
by  other  Federal  and  State  institutions.  The  State  of 
Illinois  has  made  rather  extended  surveys  of  its  farm  water 
supplies,  and  the  report  of  these  surveys  shows  that  out  of 
a  large  number  of  typical  shallow  wells  examined  three- 
fourths  were  dangerously  polluted.  The  boards  of  health 
of  Indiana,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  North  Carolina,  Virginia, 
and  other  States  have  published  official  statements  no  less 
startling.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  it  is  stated  that  pol- 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Farm.          141 

lution  might  have  been  prevented  by  proper  precautionary 
measures. 

Contaminated  water  is,  however,  by  no  means  confined  to 
shallow  wells.  Contaminated  surface  water  often  gains 
access  to  deep  wells  at  the  top  in  the  same  manner  that  it 
gains  access  to  shallow  wells.  Poorly  protected  shallow 
wells  are  sometimes  polluted  through  the  soil,  although  this 
does  not  occur  as  often  as  is  commonly  thought.  Deep 
wells,  if  not  cased,  may  be  likewise  polluted  through  the  soil 
or  through  rock  fissures,  and  if  cased,  surface  water  may 
follow  the  casing  to  the  bottom  and  thus  enter  the  well. 
However,  deep  wells  are  as  a  rule  less  likely  to  be  polluted 
than  are  shallow  wells. 

A  more  vivid  impression  of  common  causes  of  unclean 
farm  wells  can  perhaps  be  gained  from  the  accompanying 
illustrations.  These  represent  existing  conditions,  most  of 
which  were  photographed  by  the  writer. 

Plate  VII,  figure  1,  shows  the  back  yard  of  a  local  health 
officer  in  a  farming  community.  The  rather  small  area 
shown  comprised  a  hogpen,  chicken  yard,  and  cow  lot,  and 
contained  a  barn,  manure  pile,  open  privy,  chicken  house, 
and  shallow  dug  well.  The  pump  is  of  the  old  wooden  type 
and  is  located  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs  to  the  back  porch. 
Waste  water  and  slops  are  dumped  into  a  small  ditch  pre- 
sumably intended  to  drain  away  from  the  house  and  well,  but 
which  as  a  matter  of  fact  fails  to  drain  at  all. 

The  open  well  shown  in  Plate  VII,  figure  2,  is  located  much 
lower  than,  and  within  25  feet  of,  the  barn  and  chicken  yard. 
The  well  in  Plate  VII,  figure  3,  contained  water  dogs,  and  in 
fact  any  small  animal  could  crawl  under  the  loose  curbing 
and  fall  into  the  well.  Plate  VII,  figure  4,  represents  a  back 
yard  as  photographed  by  the  Indiana  State  Board  of  Health. 
An  examination  of  the  water  from  the  well  showed  it  to  be 
dangerously  polluted.  Plate  VII,  figure  5,  shows  an  open  well 
with  old-fashioned  wooden  curb,  pulley,  and  buckets  which 
is  subject  to  surface  wash  from  several  sources  of  pollution. 
The  well  is  a  shallow  well  about  15  feet  deep,  loosely  lined 
with  stones.  An  inspection  of  the  inside  revealed  moss  and 
slime  hanging  down  into  the  water,  probably  resulting  from 
surface  wash. 


142  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  soil  in  which  a  well  is  sunk  may  more  or  less  affect  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  polluted.  Often  a  shallow  well  in  a 
tough  clay  or  hardpan  soil  which  extends  to  the  water- 
bearing stratum  is  fairly  safe  from  pollution  if  protected  at 
the  surface.  Deep  wells  in  very  sandy  soils,  if  protected  at 
the  top,  are  not  often  polluted.  Perhaps  the  most  dangerous 
wells  are  those  in  a  limestone  region.  The  limestone  often 
contains  open  underground  passages  or  channels.  These 
channels  frequently  lead  to  open  fissures  or  sinks  at  the 
surface,  into  which  filth,  sewage,  garbage,  and  other  contami- 
nating matter  is  dumped.  Rain  water  can  carry  these 
impurities  directly  to  wells  through  the  channels. 

HOW  TO  KEEP  THE  WELL  WATER  CLEAN. 
PRELIMINARY    MEASURES. 

Obviously  the  logical  first  step  in  seeming  a  clean  well- 
water  supply  is  to  remove  all  the  sources  of  possible  contami- 
nation. Among  the  worst  of  these  are  the  open  privy  vault, 
the  leaching  cesspool,  and  barnyard  filth.  A  well  in  ordinary 
pervious  soil  located  lower  than,  and  within  100  feet  of,  any 
of  these  is  almost  certain  to  be  polluted.  Even  though  the 
well  is  located  on  higher  ground  than  these  sources  of  con- 
tamination, heavy  pumping  or  dry  weather  may  so  lower  the 
ground-water  level  that  it  will  reach  the  zone  of  contamina- 
tion and  thus  pollute  the  well.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  open  privy  vault  and  leaching  cesspool  should  be  dis- 
carded and  a  sewage  purification  system,  or  at  least  a  sani- 
tary privy,  be  used  instead.  Sewage,  garbage,  manure,  or 
other  waste  should  never  be  dumped  into  sinks  or  fissures, 
and  most  certainly  never  into  old  abandoned  wells.  An  old 
well  used  for  this  purpose  is  very  likely  to  communicate 
directly  with  the  water-bearing  stratum  from  which  other 
wells  in  the  immediate  vicinity  draw  their  supply.  Slops 
or  waste  water  should  never  be  thrown  out  of  the  back  door 
or  window  onto  the  ground.  If  the  pigs  and  chickens  must 
run  at  large  they  should  at  least  be  kept  away  from  the  well. 
A  box  built  around  the  pump  and  filled  with  manure  in 
whiter  is  an  extremely  unsafe  way  to  prevent  the  pump  from 
freezing. 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Farm.          143 

Concrete  manure  pits,  impervious  floors,  and  water-tight 
drains  are  desirable  features  for  farm  buildings.  If  these 
are  beyond  the  farmer's  purse  the  manure  pile  should  at 
least  be  placed  a  safe  distance  away  from  the  well. 

The  well  itself  should  be  located  as  high  as  possible  with 
respect  to  buildings,  stock  pens,  and  chicken  yards,  and  as 
far  away  from  all  sources  of  contamination  as  convenience 
and  local  surroundings  will  permit. 

FIXAL    MEASURES. 

The  final  safeguards  to  a  well-water  supply  are  to  give 
the  well  an  impervious  lining  of  tile,  cemented  brick,  iron 
casing,  or  concrete,  and  to  provide  a  water-tight  curb,  not 
only  to  keep  out  surface  wash,  animals,  and  vermin,  but  to 
prevent  the  pump  drip  and  dirt  from  shoes  and  buckets  from 
entering  the  well.  It  is  well  here  to  suggest  that  those  who 
use  the  well  should  attempt  to  remove  the  most  of  the  dirt 
from  their  shoes  before  stepping  onto  the  well  curb. 

Plate  VIII,  figure  1,  shows  a  well-protected  dug  well.  It  is 
located  on  high  ground  and  has  an  impervious  lining  of  30- 
inch  vitrified  tile  with  tightly  cemented  joints.  The  top  tile 
extends  a  foot  above  the  ground  and  is  capped  with  concrete. 
The  barns,  pens,  etc.,  are  located  at  a  safe  distance  and  on 
lower  ground,  the  farmer  preferring  to  pipe  or  carry  the  water 
to  these  places. 

Concrete  makes  a  good  lining  for  a  dug  well,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  if  a  mixture  of  mushy  consistency  is  used  an  almost 
water-tight  bond  can  be  effected  between  the  soil  and  the 
concrete,  thus  preventing  in  a  measure  the  entrance  of  surface 
water  to  the  well  by  this  route.  A  concrete  well  curb,  as 
shown  in  Plate  VIII,  figure  2,  can  always  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage. Concrete  drains  to  carry  away  the  pump  drip  and 
surface  wash,  as  shown  in  Plate  VIII,  figure  4,  are  desirable. 
Note  the  clean-looking  surroundings  of  this  well. 

Deep  wells  are  usually  lined  with  smaller  tile  or  with  iron 
casing.  Small  tile  casings,  however,  where  the  joints  are 
not  cemented,  allow  contaminated  surface  and  soil  water  to 
enter  the  well.  The  iron  casing  is  more  frequently  used  in 
deep  bored  or  punched  wells  of  smaller  diameter,  being 
usually  driven  into  place.  With  such  a  casing  the  well  can 
be  polluted  only  at  the  bottom. 

94449°— 15 2 


144  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Ordinarily  for  shallow  water  supplies  a  driven  well  is 
safest  and  the  most  satisfactory,  particularly  if  the  soil  is 
sandy.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  point  and  screen  attached  to 
a  pipe  which  is  driven  until  the  water-bearing  stratum  is 
encountered.  The  screen  on  the  point  prevents  coarse 
matter  from  being  pumped  up. 

From  what  has  been  said  regarding  wells  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  the  watchword  should  be  ''Keep  the  surround- 
ings clean  and  protect  the  well  from  surface  wash  and  soil 
drainage."  For  further  safety  it  is  a  good  idea  to  have  the 
water  tested  occasionally  for  signs  of  pollution. 

HOW  SPRINGS  ARE  POLLUTED  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  THEM 
CLEAN. 

The  farmer  who  has  a  good  spring  which  can  be  piped  to 
the  house  is  fortunate  indeed.  Springs  are,  however,  subject 
to  contamination  from  the  same  sources  as  wells,  although 
more  often  contaminated  by  surface  wash  and  because  ani- 
mals have  access  to  them. 

The  water  from  springs  which  are  open  and  unprotected 
from  surface  wash  and  from  stock  is  often  used  for  drinking 
purposes.  Plate  IX,  figure  1,  shows  a  spring  the  water  from 
which  is  commonly  used  for  drinking,  especially  by  pic-nickel's 
and  wayf  arers.  This  spring,  as  can  be  seen,  is  located  directly 
under  a  very  popular  roadway,  and  although  walled  in,  has 
inadequate  protection  from  the  filth  which  during  rains  will 
wash  from  the  roadway.  Plate  VIII,  figure  3,  is  a  historic  farm 
spring  which  is  carefully  walled  in  but  forms  an  excellent 
catch  basin  for  the  surface  wash  from  the  surrounding  hog- 
pens, chicken  yards,  barns,  etc.,  located  on  higher  ground. 

The  proper  location  for  a  spring  is  the  same  as  for  a  well. 
If  it  occurs  in  a  good  location  it  should  first  be  fenced  off  from 
stock  and  then  walled  in  with  tile  or  concrete  to  form  a  reser- 
voir, which  should  be  well  covered. 

Plate  IX,  figure  4,  is  an  example  of  a  well-protected  small 
spring  which  is  located  just  above  the  foot  of  a  hill.  A  36-inch 
vitrified  tile  was  placed  around  the  spring  so  as  to  form  a 
reservoir,  and  it  was  then  covered  as  is  shown.  Owing  to  the 
location  and  manner  of  protection  there  is  little  chance  for 
this  spring  to  become  polluted  from  surface  wash.  Small 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Farm.          145 

springs  can  frequently  be  protected  in  this  way,  and  if  so 
treated  are  often  the  best  of  water  supplies. 

Springs,  especially  those  occurring  in  limestone  regions, 
should  be  kept  under  close  observation  and  should  be  par- 
ticularly noticed  after  rains  for  any  signs  of  turbidity,  which 
may  indicate  pollution  from  near  or  distant  surface  sources. 
Frequent  examinations  for  pollution  may  prevent  trouble, 
and  if  there  is  any  doubt  whatever  about  the  purity  of  the 
spring,  the  water  'should  be  boiled  carefully  before  drinking. 

RAIX    WATER    AXD    CISTERXS. 

In  many  cases  rain  water  is  used  for  laundry  purposes  and 
sometimes  for  drinking  and  cooking.  It  is  often  the  only 
available  source  of  soft  water.  If  rain  water  is  to  be  used, 
a  cistern  for  storage  purposes  and  usually  a  filter  for  par- 
tially purifying  the  water  are  necessary. 

Roofs,  particularly  shingled  roofs,  collect  much  dust  and 
dirt  from  the  roads,  and  gutters  and  eave  troughs  are  often 
filled  with  leaves,  dirt,  and  bird  droppings.  It  is  well  to 
keep  the  gutters  clean,  even  though  the  rain  water  is  not  used, 
but  if  it  is  used  the  importance  of  clean  gutters  is  vastly 
increased.  However  careful  one  may  be,  the  roof  is  certain 
to  be  dirty  when  dry.  It  is  therefore  extremely  important 
that  a  switch  and  by-pass  be  provided  on  the  rain-water 
pipe,  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  rains  the  filth  from  the  roof 
may  be  washed  to  the  outside  before  any  rain  water  is 
admitted  to  the  cistern. 

The  necessary  size  of  the  cistern  will  depend  on  the  amount 
of  water  used  daily  by  the  family,  the  annual  rainfall  in  the 
locality,  and  the  size  of  the  contributing  roof  area.  If  the 
rainfall  is  well  distributed  throughout  the  year,  the  capacity 
of  the  cistern  may  be  only  sufficient  for  one  or  two  weeks' 
supply.  In  localities  where  long  intervals  often  occur  be- 
tween periods  of  rainfall,  and  where  much  dependence  is 
placed  on  the  rain  water,  it  is  advisable  to  provide  a  cistern 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  hold  half  or  three-fourths  of  the  rain 
which  falls  annually  on  the  average  roof  area.  The  amount 
available  in  gallons  may  be  computed  approximately  by 
multiplying  the  roof  area  in  square  inches  by  the  rainfall  in 
inches  and  dividing  the  product  by  231.  To  take  greater 


146  Year-book  of  tlic  Department  of  Agriculture. 

advantage  of  rains,  the  contributing  roof  area  may  be  ex- 
tended by  means  of  proper  piping  to  include  roofs  of  other 
buildings  besides  the  house. 

The  cistern  may  be  built  of  concrete  or  cemented  brick, 
but  in  any  event  if  placed  underground  it  should  be  water- 
tight, not  only  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  stored  water,  but 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  ground  water.  If  the  cistern  is 
constructed  of  concrete  and  the  surrounding  soil  is  loose  and 
exerts  a  decided  pressure  on  the  walls,  the  latter  should  be 
reinforced  close  to  the  inside  surface.  A  mixture  of  1  part 
cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  4  parts  gravel  or  broken  stone 
may  be  used  in  cistern  construction.  The  concrete  mixture 
may  be  made  more  waterproof  by  adding  10  per  cent  of 
petroleum  residuum  oil  based  on  the  weight  of  the  cement, 
or  by  replacing  about  15  per  cent  of  the  cement  with 
hydrated  lime.  Whatever  the  type  of  construction,  one  or 
two  coatings  of  a  strong  cement  grout,  preferably  containing 
about  3  per  cent  oil,  will  aid  in  waterproofing  the  walls.  An 
overflow  pipe,  well  screened,  should  be  provided  in  the  side, 
and  the  cover  should  be  water-tight. 

The  filtering  arrangement  may  either  be  in  a  separate 
chamber  or  inside  the  cistern. 

In  the  first  case,  a  filter  bed  of  sand  and  gravel  is  placed 
in  a  brick  or  concrete  tank  or  in  a  good  barrel  located  pref- 
erably close  to  the  cistern.  The  rain  water  should  be  made 
to  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  filter  and  come  in  contact 
with  all  parts  of  it,  passing  completely  through  before  enter- 
ing the  cistern.  Figure  3  shows  a  common  type  of  filter 
connected  with  an  underground  concrete  cistern.  Such  a 
filter  should,  in  a  large  measure,  purify  rain  water  which 
passes  through  it.  The  filtering  material  should  be  renewed 
at  intervals  and  the  collected  sediment  cleaned  out  fre- 
quently. The  cistern  shown  has  a  capacity  of  about  3,800 
gallons. . 

In  the  second  case,  the  filter  usually  consists  of  two  walls 
of  brick,  8  to  10  inches  apart,  the  intervening  space  being 
filled  with  coarse  sand,  fine  gravel,  or  both.  Only  the  ver- 
tical j obits  between  the  bricks  are  cemented.  A  number  of 
loose  bricks  are  placed  at  several  points  at  the  base  to  permit 
the  removal  of  the  sand  or  gravel  when  it  becomes  clogged; 
The  filter  wall  should  be  built  in  an  arch  shape  to  give  it 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept 


PLATE  VII. 


SOME  TYPES  OF  WELL  SURROUNDINGS. 

Fig.  1.— The  back  yard  of  a  local  health  officer's  residence.  Fig.  2.— A  well  which  the  surface 
wash  from  the  barn  during  rains  will  pollute.  Fig.  3. — A  loose  curbing  which  permits 
small  animals  and  vermin  to  fall  into  the  well.  Fig.  4. — Well  in  which  the  water  was 
badly  polluted.  Fig.  5.— An  old-fashioned  open  well  subject  to  surface  wash. 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


PLATE  VIII, 


SOME  TYPES  OF  WELL  AND  SPRING  SURROUNDINGS. 

Fig.  1.— A  good  protection  for  a  dug  well.  Fig.  2.— Curb  good  and  tight,  with  pump  frame 
tigntly  fastened  to  it.  Fig.  3.— Catch-basin  type  of  spring,  which  one  should  usually 
avoid,  regardless  of  its  history  or  popularity.  Fig.  4.— A  nicely  kept  well  with  concrete 


drains  and  clean  satroundings. 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


PLATE  IX. 


SOME  TYPES  OF  WELL  AND  SPRING  SURROUNDINGS. 

Fig.  1.— Spring  inadequately  protected  from  surface  wash  from  the  road;  should  be  looked 
on  with  suspicion.  Fig.  2.— An  excellent  outside  elevated  tank  system.  Fig.  3.— Small 
gas  engine  directly  connected  to  the  pump.  Fig.  4. — Spring  well  protected,  and  can  be 
tightly  covered. 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Farm. 


147 


strength.  The  raw-water  compartment  should  be  made 
much  larger  than  the  filtered-water  compartment  to  obtain 
the  benefit  of  sedimentation  before  filtration. 

Sometimes  the  filter  wall  in  a  cistern  consists  merely  of  a 
wall  of  porous  brick  with  vertical  cemented  joints.  This 
type  of  filter  is  apt  to  become  clogged  and  ineffective  in  time, 
as  far  as  purification  is  concerned. 

In  some  localities  it  is  necessary,  owing  to  the  height  of 
ground-water  level,  to  build  the  cistern  above  ground.  In 


FIG.  3. — A  common  type  of  cistern  and  filter. 

such  cases  the  cistern  should  be  well  protected  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  filth  and  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes. 

The  method  of  having  the  filter  separate  from  the  cistern, 
although  usually  the  more  expensive,  is  perhaps  the  more 
efficient.  There  are  other  simpler  and  perhaps  less  expen- 
sive cistern  arrangements  which  serve  the  purpose.  The 
main  idea  is,  however,  to  purify  the  water  as  much  as  pos- 
sible before  it  is  used,  and  to  provide  effective  storage. 

HOW  TO  GET  RUNNING  WATER  IN  THE  HOUSE. 

From  the  standpoint  of  convenience,  comfort,  and  refine- 
ment, the  most  important  consideration  in  connection  with 
the  farm  water-supply  problem  is  to  have  the  water  under 


148  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

pressure  in  an  elevated  tank  or  in  a  hydropneumatic  tank 
and  available  at  the  turning  of  a  faucet,  or  at  least  available 
by  merely  pumping. 

The  method  of  hoisting  water  from  the  well  or  spring, 
pouring  it  into  buckets,  and  carrying  it  up  porch  steps  and 
through  doors  into  the  kitchen  and  to  other  parts  of  the 
house  is  tiresome  and  wasteful  of  energy,  and  is  cruelly  and 
in  most  cases  inexcusably  primitive,  especially  as  the  task  of 
obtaining  the  water  generally  falls  in  such  cases  upon  the 
women  of  the  household. 

It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  running  water  be  available 
at  least  in  the  kitchen,  and  in  a  bathroom  if  possible. 

THE    SIMPLEST    WAY. 

Almost  any  system  of  obtaining  running  water  in  the 
kitchen  is  better  than  none  at  all.  If  the  well  or  cistern  is 
located  within  a  short  distance  of  the  house,  about  the  sim- 
plest and  perhaps  the  cheapest  method  is  to  place  a  pitcher 
or  other  pump  over  a  sink  in  the  kitchen.  The  suction  pipe  of 
the  pump  may  be  extended  to  the  well  and  water  be  obtained 
when  desired  merely  by  pumping;  that  is,  provided  the  dis- 
tance to  water  in  the  well  is  not  too  great.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  a  pump  will  lif  t  water  only  to  a  height  of  about 
20  feet.  One  should  be  careful,  therefore,  not  to  place  the 
pump  in  such  a  position  that  the  suction  lift  will  exceed  20 
feet,  for  in  that  event  the  pump  will  not  operate  satisfactorily 
and  likely  not  at  all.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
water  flowing  through  a  pipe  meets  with  considerable  resist- 
ance due  to  friction,  which  increases  as  the  velocity  of  the 
water  and  the  length  of  the  pipe  increase  and  as  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe  decreases.  Elbows  and  bends  in  the  pipe  also 
increase  the  friction.  Pump  manufacturers  give  information 
in  regard  to  this  frictional  loss  which  should  always  be  con- 
sidered in  arranging  a  pumping  system  in  the  kitchen  or 
elsewhere.  The  allowable  distance  from  the  well  to  the 
pump  for  this  arrangement  will  vary  with  local  conditions. 
The  writer  has  seen  cases  in  which  this  distance  was  as  high 
as  150  to  200  feet. 

When  the  housewife  is  unusually  busy  in  the  kitchen  it  is 
a  waste  of  time  and  energy,  and  perhaps  a  strain  on  pat  ience, 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Fat^m.          149 

to  stop  to  pump  water.  Also  the  most  water  is  usually 
needed  when  she  is  the  busiest.  For  this  reason  a  water 
supply  under  pressure  is  a  great  convenience,  as  it  makes  it 
possible  to  obtain  the  needed  water  merely  by  turning  a 
faucet. 

The  simplest,  and  usually  the  cheapest,  method  of  securing 
a  water  supply  under  pressure  is  to  have  an  elevated  supply 
tank  located  at  some  point  8  or  10  feet  higher  than  the 
highest  faucet. 

THE    ELEVATED-TANK    SYSTEM. 

An  elevated  water-supply  tank  may  be  placed  in  the  attic, 
on  the  roof,  on  the  windmill  tower,  on  a  special  tower,  or  on 
the  silo.  It  must  be  high  enough  to  give  the  desired  pressure 
at  points  where  the  water  is  used.  The  tank  may  be  of  wood 
or  galvanized  metal.  Its  size  will  depend  on  the  amount  of 
water  used  daily  in  the  house.  A  250  to  500  gallon  tank  is 
sufficient  for  the  average  family,  although  some  have  a  much 
larger  tank,  so  that  a  supply  sufficient  to  last  several  days 
may  be  maintained.  A  larger  tank  is  also  necessary  where 
water  is  supplied  to  the  house  and  barns, 

The  simplest  system  of  this  kind  is  one  with  the  tank  in 
the  attic  or  on  the  roof  supplying  water  to  the  kitchen  only. 
When  the  expense  can  be  afforded  a  hot-water  tank  may  be 
placed  in  the  kitchen  and  the  water  plumbing  be  extended 
to  a  bathroom. 

The  pump  for  this  system  must  be  a  force  pump,  which  not 
only  raises  water  to  its  own  level  by  suction  but  forces  it  to 
greater  heights,  according  to  the  power  applied.  The  pump 
may  be  placed  over  the  well  or  in  any  other  convenient  spot 
as  long  as  the  suction  lift  does  not  exceed  20  feet.  A  three- 
way  valve  on  such  a  pump  permits  the  operator  to  direct  the 
water  to  the  tank  or  through  the  pump  spout,  as  desired. 
The  pump  may  be  operated  by  hand,  but  where  much  water 
is  to  be  pumped  to  a  considerable  height  a  windmill,  a  small 
gas  engine,  or  an  electric  motor  will  save  much  time  and 
exertion. 

Plate  IX,  figure  2,  shows  an  excellent  outside  elevated- 
tank  system  supplied  by  a  steel  windmill.  This  tank  is  of 
about  2,500  gallons  capacity  and  supplies  water  to  the  house 


150  Yearbook  of  tlie  Department  of  Agriculture. 

and  barns.  It  is  often  possible  to  supply  such  a  tank  with 
a  small  gas-engine  pumping  plant,  which  may  be  situated  in 
a  shed  constructed  around  the  foot  of  the  tower. 

The  great  objection  to  an  elevated-tank  system  is  that  in 
the  colder  climates  there  is  danger  of  the  water  in  the  tank 
freezing.  This  is  particularly  objectionable  when  the  tank 
is  located  in  the  attic,  where  considerable  damage  may  be 
caused  if  it  should  burst.  It  is  also  necessary  .to  provide  an 
especially  strong  support  for  the  tank.  Another  objection 
is  that  if  located  in  the  attic  the  tank  is  likely  to  catch  con- 
siderable filth.  It  should,  in  such  cases,  be  easily  accessible 
for  more  or  less  frequent  cleaning.  It  is  well  also  to  cover 
the  tank  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  entrance  of  dirt 
and  vermin,  and  when  placed  on  a  tower  outside  it  should  be 
covered  to  prevent  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes. 

The  great  advantages  of  this  system  are  its  cheapness  and 
simplicity.  All  that  is  needed  are  a  force  pump,  a  storage 
tank,  a  pipe  from  the  pump  to  the  tank,  a  pipe  from  the  tank 
to  the  point  at  which  water  is  used,  and  accompanying  fix- 
tures. The  tank  should  have  an  overflow  pipe,  particularly 
if  located  in  the  attic. 

A  number  of  such  systems  are  in  successful  use.  If  well 
constructed  and  maintained,  they  afford  a  satisfactory,  con- 
venient, and  comparatively  cheap  farm  water  supply. 
Although  more  generally  successful  in  the  wanner  climates, 
such  systems  may  with  proper  protection  and  attention  be 
often  used  with  success  in  colder  climates. 

An  improvement  over  the  elevated-tank  system  is  the 
hydropneumatic  system,  which  does  away  with  the  dangers 
of  freezing  and  filth  accumulation. 

THE    HYDROPXEUMATIC    SYSTEM. 

In  the  hydropneumatic  system  a  water  and  air  tight  tank 
is  placed  in  the  basement  or  almost  anywhere  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  house  where  there  is  no  danger  from 
freezing.  This  tank  is  usually  connected  by  a  If-inch  pipe  to 
the  three-way  valve  of  &  force  pump  for  the  weU  or  cistern. 
The  pump  preferably  is  so  equipped  as  to  pump  a  little  air  at 
each  stroke  in  addition  to  the  water.  At  the  start  of  pump- 
ing the  tank  is  full  of  air,  but  as  pumping  continues  this  ah- 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  R  on  the  Farm.          151 

is  gradually  compressed  by  the  entering  water  until  the 
required  pressure,  usually  25  to  40  pounds,  is  indicated  on  a 
pressure  gauge. 

One  pound  of  pressure  will  force  the  water  approximately 
2  feet  high  in  the  house,  so  that  for  the  ordinary  house  a 
pressure  greater-. than  40  pounds  is  not  necessary. 

For  the  average  family  a  tank  at  least  30  inches  in  diame- 
ter and  6  feet  long,  with  a  capacity  of  220  gallons,  is  required. 
At  40  pounds'  pressure  this  tank  will  be  nearly  three-fourths 
full  of  water  and  will  deliver  about  130  gallons  to  the  second 
story  and  a  greater  proportion  of  the  total  capacity  to  the 
kitchen.  Tanks  of  larger  or  smaller  capacity  may  be  secured 
if  desired. 

Figure  4  shows  the  main  features  in  the  installation  of 
such  a  system  with  the  tank  in  the  house  basement.  The 
hot-water  pipes  are  shown  in  black.  The  pump  may  be  over 
the  well  as  shown,  or  in  the  cellar  next  to  the  tank  if  the  well 
is  not  too  deep  nor  too  far  from  the  house. 

The  equipment  necessary  for  an  installation  of  this  kind 
consists  of  a  steel  tank  of  the  desired  size,  with  pressure  gauge 
and  gauge  glass,  an  air  and  water  force  pump,  pipes,  and  con- 
nections, a  30  to  40  gallon  hot-water  tank,  and  the  desired 
fixtures.  A  system  of  this  kind,  if  well  installed,  affords  a 
satisfactory  and  convenient  water  supply  available  at  the 
turning  of  a  faucet.  It  is  perhaps  more  expensive  than  the 
elevated-tank  system,  but  also  does  not  have  many  of  the 
objectionable  features  connected  with  that  system.  Water 
may  be  pumped  for  this  system  by  hand,  but,  as  in  the 
elevated-tank  system,  where  the  desired  pressure  is  above  20 
to  25  pounds,  a  windmill,  small  gas  engine,  or  small  electric 
motor  is  necessary. 

POWER   FOR    PUMPING. 

A  gas  engine  rated  at  from  \  to  \\  horsepower  should  be  of 
sufficient  power  for  ordinary  farm  pumping.  It  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  pump  directly  or  by  a  belt. 

In  the  first  case,  the  engine  is  usually  used  for  pumping  only 
and  may  be  arranged  about  as  shown  in  Plate  IX,  figure  3. 
It  is  usually  desirable  in  such  a  case  to  provide  a  shelter  for  the 
engine,  at  least. 


152 


Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


In  the  second  case  the  engine  is  more  likely  used  for  several 
purposes  about  the  farm  and  may  be  a  portable  engine,  or  it 
may  be  located  in  a  shed  near  the  pump.  In  either  event,  if 
the  pump  is  equipped  with  a  pumping  jack  and  belt  wheel  it 
may  be  operated  by  the  engine  by  means  of  a  belt. 


FJG.  4.— Pneumatic  tank  supply  system  with  tank  in  basement  supplied  by  hand  force  pump. 

A  good  windmill  is  a  cheap  source  of  pumping  power  if  well 
taken  care  of.  A  steel  windmill  is  usually  preferable  to  the 
wooden  type.  The  mill  itself  costs  considerable,  it  is  true, 
but  wind  power  thereafter  costs  nothing,  while  gasoline  is  a 
constant  expense.  The  gas  engine  will,  on  the  other  hand, 
pump  water  whether  the  wind  blows  or  not.  On  the  whole, 
however,  in  localities  where  the  wind  is  steadily  fairly  strong 
a  windmill  should  be  a  satisfactory  pumping  power.  Where 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  the  Farm.          153 

electricity  is  available  an  electric  motor  rated  at  £  to  f 
horsepower  is  usually  sufficient  for  ordinary  farm  pumping. 
If  spring  water  is  used  the  hydraulic  ram  is  usually  the  best 
method  of  pumping  water  to  the  house  if  the  spring  is  so 
located  that  the  water  can  not  be  piped  directly  by  gravity. 

THE    HYDRAULIC    RAM. 

The  hydraulic  ram  is  a  simple,  though  rather  wasteful, 
machine  which  utilizes  the  momentum  of  a  stream  of  water 
falling-  a  small  height  to  elevate  a  small  part  of  that  water  to 
a  greater  height.  In  this  way  a  spring  if  properly  connected 


FIG.  5.— Hydraulic  ram  pumping  to  a  pneumatic  tank  supply  system,  showing  usual  rela- 
tive positions  of  spring,  ram,  and  storage  tank. 

with  a  hydraulic  ram  will  do  double  duty,  supplying  the  water 
and  also  the  power  for  pumping. 

Certain  conditions  are  necessary,  however,  for  the  proper 
operation  of  such  a  system.  The  ram  must  be  located  lower 
than  the  spring  and  at  the  proper  distance  away.  The  fall 
from  spring  to  ram  must  not  be  less  than  2  feet,  and  the  spring 
must  supply  not  less  than  one-half  gallon  of  water  per  minute. 
Most  rams  are,  however,  guaranteed  to  operate  on  not  less 
than  2  gallons  per  minute.  Figure  5  shows  the  usual  rela- 
tive positions  of  spring,  ram,  and  storage  tank. 

The  drive  pipe  is  usually  twice  the  size  of  the  delivery  pipe 
and  the  size  of  each  depends  on  the  size  of  the  ram  used.  The 
length  of  the  drive  pipe  is  usually  about  seven  times  the 
height  of  fall,  although  this  may  vary  between  five  and  ten, 
depending  on  the  height  and  distance  to  which  water  is  to  be 


154 


Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


delivered.  Its  length  must  ordinarily  be  equal  to  the  vertical 
height  to  which  the  water  is  lifted  and  must  never  be  less 
than  three-fourths  this  height.  It  is  well  to  add  on  the  aver- 
age about  2  feet  to  the  length  of  the  drive  pipe  for  every 
100  feet  the  water  is  carried  horizontally. 

Where  the  grade  is  small  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
bring  the  water  a  long  distance  in  order  to  get  the  desired 
fall  a  standpipe  or  reservoir  may  be  placed  in  the  line  of  the 
supply  pipe  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  ram,  as  shown 
in  figure  6,  and  thus  bring  the  effective  pressure  nearer  the 
ram  and  prevent  waste  of  pressure  by  friction  in  an  unneces- 
sarily long  drive  pipe. 


FIG.  6.— Two  methods  of  securing  the  necessary  fall  in  drive  pipe. 

Manufacturers  of  hydraulic  rams  make  certain  guarantees 
as  to  what  their  particular  type  of  ram  will  accomplish  under 
certain  conditions.  If  one  knows  the  quantity  of  flow  of  his 
spring,  the  elevation  above  the  spring  to  which  it  is  desired 
to  deliver  water,  and  the  distance  from  the  approximate 
location  of  the  ram  to  the  point  of  delivery,  he  can,  by  con- 
sulting the  tables  which  manufacturers  usually  furnish, 
easily  determine  the  size  of  ram,  length  and  size  of  drive 
pipe,  and  usually  the  minimum  permissible  fall  in  the  drive 
pipe  to  suit  his  particular  case.  Thus  the  smallest  sizes  of 
some  makes  of  hydraulic  ram  are  guaranteed  to  operate  under 
a  minimum  fall  of  3  feet  with  a  supply  of  2  to  3  gallons  of 
water  per  minute  and  lift  10  to  15  gallons  of  water  per  hour 
to  a  height  of  about  20  feet.  The  larger  sizes  will  deliver  150 


Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It  on  tJie  Farm.         155 

to  300  gallons  per  hour  to  a  height  of  100  to  120  feet  under 
proper  working  conditions.  The  proportion  of  water  sup- 
plied to  the  ram  which  is  elevated  to  the  point  of  use  will  vary 
according  to  operating  conditions  from  about  two-sevenths 
for  the  lower  lifts  to  one-twentieth  for  the  higher  lifts.  In 
order  to  secure  their  guarantee  it  is  well  to  follow  closely  the 
directions  for  installation  given  out  by  the  manufacturers  of 
the  ram. 

It  is  always  well  to  house  the  ram  in  to  protect  it  from 
freezing  and  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  sand  and  grit  to  the 
drive  pipe  by  screening  the  open  end.  Sand  and  grit  will 
soon  prevent  the  proper  action  of  the  valves.  The  pipes 
should  also  be  placed  below  the  frost  line.  In  setting  a 
rain  the  foundation  should  be  firm  and  level.  The  drive 
pipe  should  be  laid  on  a  perfectly  straight  incline  with- 
out bends  or  curves  except  where  the  pipe  enters  the  ram, 
and  this  should  be  made  by  bending  the  pipe.  Fittings 
should  be  used  only  where  absolutely  necessary.  The  upper 
end  of  the  drive  pipe  should  be  sufficiently  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  to  prevent  air  suction — at  least  a  foot. 
Above  all  things  the  drive  pipe  should  be  air-tight. 

The  delivery  pipe  may  be  laid  with  the  necessary  bends, 
according  to  the  usual  practice  in  laying  water  pipes,  but 
all  pipes  should  be  connected  before  starting  the  ram  and 
they  should  be  left  uncovered  until  all  leaks  are  stopped. 
There  should  be  as  few  bends  and  elbows  in  the  delivery  pipe 
as  possible  in  order  to  reduce  friction. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  hydraulic-ram  pumping  system  is  a 
very  convenient  one.  Of  course  it  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  watching  and  care,  but  the  ram  is  so  simple  that  if  properly 
installed  it  is  easily  kept  in  working  order.  It  operates  day 
and  night,  winter  and  summer,  whether  the  wind  blows  or 
not,  and  regardless  of  the  price  of  gasoline  or  electricity,  and 
its  operation  is  continuous  until  stopped.  In  some  respects, 
therefore,  it  has  the  advantage  over  the  windmill  and  gas 
engine. 

CONCLUSION. 

Methods  for  safeguarding  the  purity  of  farm  water  sup- 
plies are  being  given  more  and  more  attention  by  progressive 
farmers,  and  the  value  of  clean  water  from  the  standpoint  of 


156  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. . 

health  is  now  recognized.  The  rural  inhabitant,  therefore, 
realizing  his  obligation  to  his  family  and  to  himself  in  this 
respect,  should  see  to  it  that  clean  and  wholesome  water  is 
provided  for  household  uses.  This  necessitates  in  the  main 
the  use  of  effective  measures  for  protecting  wells,  springs, 
and  other  sources  of  farm  water  supplies  from  surface  and 
subsurface  pollution  and  that,  above  all  things  else,  clean 
well  surroundings  be  maintained.  Further,  to  avoid  trouble 
in  the  future,  a  spirit  of  constant  watchfulness  and  care  with 
reference  to  maintaining  the  purity  of  the  water  supply  may 
well  be  developed. 

In  addition,  simple,  economical,  and  practical  means  of 
obtaining  running  water  in  the  house  have  been  found 
which,  when  properly  and  carefully  installed,  do  away  with 
much  of  the  drudgery  formerly  borne  largely  by  the  farm 
housewife. 

The  farmer  of  average  means  can  not  afford  to  overlook 
the  advantages  offered  by  these  more  modern  methods  and 
arrangements  for  securing  running  water  in  the  house;  and 
when  the  expenditure  in  time  and  energy  for  carrying  water 
is  compared  with  the  actual  cost  of  installing  the  cheaper 
and  simpler  means  of  providing  a  convenient  water  supply 
in  the  house,  it  is  believed  a  step  in  this  direction  by  even 
the  less  well-to-do  farmer  would  be,  in  the  long  run,  a 
decided  saving  and  advantage. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

• 

APR  1  7-1950 
NOV  3 "-* 


Form  L-9-10wt-5,'28 


^PJP.-rr.^ '•  q==  -•'•--  -  BRARY  FACILITY 


iiVERSITY  of  CALIFORN* 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 
UBRARY 


